Check Your Listening Skill (Exercise 1)

Listen to the content without seeing the transcript and answer the following questions :

1.What is the name of the persons in the conversation?

2.Where is the fossil of two-headed dinosaur discovered?

3.What is the meaning of the phrasal verb “take in”?

4.What is the topic of discussion by the speakers?

5.What do you mean by the phrase “feeling the pinch”?

6.How many national print newspapers are sold in the U. K a day?

7.Say any two advantages of digital news ?

8.Which university does Prof. Tim Luckhurst belong to?

9.What are the two qualities of a journalist as suggested by Tim Luckhurst?

10.What do you mean by “rant” and “chronicles”?

11.What is the name of the website associated with Alex Cox?

12.Alex Cox  uses the word “deceased “ to mean “sick “. Say true or false?

13.Why do advertisers choose Digital Newspapers rather than the traditional ones?

14.During which World War did newspapers publish short poems of the dead by their relatives?

15.Is Alex Cox a Professor at a university?

Tips : (Listening for a specific purpose) English Teachers may allow the students to read the questions first.  Then they can just play the audio without transcripts and make the students listen. They can play again later with transcripts while checking the answer. While playing again third time just with audio,  students can feel the difference in their improvement.

An Introduction to ELT

16. What is instructional design?
A teaching plan with predetermined objectives,  teacher learner roles and class room activities is called is called instructional design.

17. What are the three important components in ELT?  Explain
Approaches,  Methods and techniques are the three core areas of ELT.  The ideas, beliefs and theories of ELT are called approaches to language learning. If you say that conditioning and the relation between stimulus and response leads to learning,  it’s behaviorist theory/approach of/to language learning.  If you believe that understanding the mental processes  will lead to better understanding of processes of learning,  that is cognitive approach to language learning. Lexical, notional-functional,  communicative, situational, natural and eclective  approaches are other approaches to ELT.

The ways of putting theories into practice are called Teaching methods which are sub domains, suitable for a particular approach and have objectives.  Teaching methods are four kinds :
A.  Structural methods
B.  Situational methods
C.  Interactive methods
D.  Natural Methods

The activities are strategies adopted in the classroom by the teacher are the techniques, third component of ELT arising at the execution level.   For example,  to think that doing something for healthy body is an essential part of our life is our approach (1) to life.  You can do yoga,  go for a walking, engaging yourself in sports activities or taking only hygienic food are methods (2) based on your approach to better life. Doing different yoga aasanas are techniques(3), activities arising at the execution level.

18. What is the difference between grammar translation method and audio lingual method of Teaching a language?
The deductive way of learning the target language with constant reference to one’s mother tongue is called Grammar Translation Method.  But the method of learning  language, based on structuralist psychology with no reference to mother tongue is known as audio lingual method. 
Main differences between GTM and ALM are:

A) Constant use of L1 -----      no use of L1

B)Only reading and writing skill involved ------    main focus on speaking and listening

C)Translation,  vocabulary building,  reading literature --------         dialogue , rote memorization, repetition and drilling of patterns

19. What is situational method of language teaching?
The method of learning language by teaching structures in situations,  not as isolated one is called situational language teaching. This is the method of applied linguistics in contrary to structuralist linguistics. If you say “black board “ that is structuralistic approach but if you say “look at the black board” that is situational approach . Here also only target language is used but no drilling of patterns is done.

20 . What are the interactive language teaching methods?
A) Direct method: Teach the language directly in the target language ,  don’t teach about the language . Make them think in the target language.  Don’t give grammar rules,  just make them directly communicate by asking and answering questions . 

B)Communicative Language Teaching (CLT) : Interaction (communication )is both the means and goal of learning language.  No textbook is prescribed but work sheet, tasks,  hands out are used to create opportunities for learning through interaction with others. Presentation , Practice and Production are its components. (activities : Role play,  Pair work, interview,  group activity,  information gap and scavenger hunt)

C)Language Immersion : Using both L1 and L2 in learning language and other subjects is known as language immersion bases on bilingualism.  .

D)The Silent Way : (by Caleb Gattengo) Teacher should be silent and the students should talk more.  Teaching should be subordinate to learning.  Teacher  should be a helper,  not be a hindrance in the process of language learning.  Trial and error,  constant assessment,  deliberate experimenting and no formal test are salient features of this method.

E)Suggestopedia : (by Georgi Lozanov ) Enjoyable and musical environment should be created by the teacher to make the student comfortable for language learning.  It has four stages:

Deciphering : foreign language on the left side and translation on the right side are given for better understanding.

Active and Passive concert session : Grammar and text are taught inductively through songs and games.  Students listen to music and repeat. 

Elaboration : content is elaborated through tasks in chorus.  Students finish off with songs and games at last and produce their content without feeling they have learnt.

Thus production happens automatically.

F)Total Physical Response – (by  James Asher)  Learn by doing.  It’s based on how a child learns her L1 in a stress-free manner. Use the right hemisphere of the brain.  This method suitable for young language learner,  not for adult or aged learner. Having all directions from teacher,  teacher centred it is.

G)TPR Storytelling – (developed by Blaine Ray)  Teaching proficiency through reading and storytelling involves three steps.
  Step1: write three new structures on the board,  translate and repeat to internalize.

Step 2 (spoken class story) : Tell personalised stories with these structures with short grammar explanations( pop up grammar)

Step 3: Ask students read stories in the class and at home and discuss. (The selected three structures should be repeated at least 100times for internalising )

22.What’s  the Natural Approach in ELT?
It’s a teaching method developed by Stephen Krashen and Tracy Terrell based on the natural way a child learns a language.  No textbook, no error correction and conscious grammar emphasis is done. Teacher uses only L2 but the learner,  both. 

Stage 1: (comprehension)  Make the learner understand the vocabulary in TL. 

Stage 2:( Early speech.)  Let them speak small words and phrases and answer shortly,  yes or no. 

stage 3: (speech emergence)Role play,  dialogue, presentation and problem solving exercises are given once the language emerges from them. The teacher has to be patient till the language emerges naturally from the student.

Assessment on Writing Skill

Sample writing:

“Say Goodbye to Plastics “

To think of plastic-free world is a joy for ever.  Men may go and men may come but plastics once used will go on for ever as a threat to living and non-living things on earth. Plastic spoils the soil to a great extent that the earth becomes bankrupt of all its properties.  See the sea,  plastic waste makes it unfit for its own residents.  Isn’t it  a Comedy if we don’t find for it a remedy?

Don’t say,  operation is success but patient died! “  First, say NO to industries that produce plastics .  “Live without plastics, or die with plastics. “ is what Times Now says now.  Why go to shops empty-handed!  Why can’t carry cloth bags or jute bags that can reduce your sin of embracing plastics?  Why can’t teachers and social reformers turn into social Bhudhas to enlighten people with this awareness? Charity begins at home.  As an individual,  what are you going to do now?

Assessment :
The first paragraph analyses the issue while the second one offers some solutions. 
What is the main idea of the paragraph?  The consequences of using plastics and solutions.
What is the topic sentence of the first paragraph? To think of plastic-free world is a joy for ever. The second sentence says why plastic-free world is necessary . The next two sentences explain the consequences. The last sentence in the first paragraph insists the urgency for finding a solution and thereby being a concluding sentence and at the same time making a link to the following paragraph that talks about solution.

Instead of asking people not to use plastics (in the way asking people not to smoke),  the government has to close and seal the factories  that manufacture plastics.  This is implied in the first sentence of the second paragraph and explained in the second sentence.  Then other solutions are given one after another but in rhetorical questions which carry answers within.   Are the ideas not developed in an impressive way here driving home the points discussed ? Apparent use of linkers may not be necessary sometimes, if the coherence is not missing.

When the paragraph was given to another group of teacher -trainees and asked for feedback,  they gave something similar to the following :
1.There is relevance to the structure and content.
2.Linkers  are not used.
3.The topic Sentence or ideas are not developed well.
4.It’s written in an enjoyable way but there is no coherence.

What’s your feedback for this feedback?

Try to find answers in general for the following :
1.When do we assess our students- during the process . Progress or after the product of writing,   especially in evaluating assignments and test papers?

2. Is evaluation itself a myth?  If TRB that assessed the knowledge of literature of English faculty is reconducted now for those who got selected in 2006, will they score the same?   After 12 years,  they are supposed to halve more knowledge and experience as a teacher. Then why does evaluation system fail here?  If the evaluation score and your certificate is valid only for a particular period of time,  as told for IELTS, what is the value of 10th, +2, diploma and degree certificates?  

3. Is the knowledge of the student evaluated or his skill?  If we evaluate  both knowledge and skills,i.e, both in theory and practical exams,  why do most of students pass practical exams but have many arrears in theory exam?  Do they have skill without knowledge? The student who passes English practical exam fails in English theory exam.  Does it mean that he had communication skills but no knowledge of grammar or English? If English is not a knowledge,  but four skills,  why should we have two theory exams for English? Is evaluation a myth?

Explain “Flipped Classroom”

Flipped classroom is a new strategy of student centered learning in which students gain knowledge of the subject at home through watching videos and come prepared to the class where they actively interact with peers and teacher and clarify and apply the knowledge. The significant difference between traditional classroom and the flipped classroom is that in the former  teacher is the active speaker and students are passive listeners but in the latter it reverses – students interact with peers in group and with teacher and learns more deeply,  being an active participant in learning. Information transfer can take place outside the class but information assimilation,  in the class. Allison King’s  “ From the Sage On the stage to the Guide on the Side”, Eric Mazur ‘s “Peer Instruction” and Salmon Khan’s Khan Academy are all based on the idea of Flipped Classroom.

How to implement the concept of flip classroom in your educational institution?

Topic: Use of Homophones
Time: 1 hour
Student strength : 60
Objective : To enable the students understand homophones distinctly and apply the knowledge to make sentences with the right homophones in real life situations.

Step 1
Ask the students to gain knowledge of homophones at home
(1)By watching YouTube videos on homophones
(2)By Collecting the list of frequently used 50 homophones
(3)By accessing online resource on the difference between homophones and homonyms

Step 2 (10 minutes)
On the next day,  divide the students in the classroom into 10 groups,  each having 6 members.

Give them the task:  Each group will be given one minute time.  Who writes more number of homophones without spelling mistakes will be the winner and will score marks accordingly 50, 40. 30, 20 and 10. (Only one in the group may write and others should assist.)

Step 3 (10 minutes)
Task :  Group 1 should say one homophone and group 2 has to say both homophones, their spelling and meaning.  If a group doesn’t answer, it will be passed to the next one.   Who says rightly will get the score 10 points. Each group has to get a chance to ask and answer.

Step 4 (10 minutes)
Task: Teacher should give a hand out with 5 questions with  homophones in brackets to each group. Members may discuss among them and find the answer..  Who finds answers for all questions first will get 50 points and the remaining in order of 40, 30, 20 and 10

Step 5 (20 minutes)
Task: The teacher may give any homophone and the targeted group’s any member has to make an example sentence with each homophone.  The members may give ideas and help in making into sentences.  Each right answer may be awarded with 10 points.  Passing the word to another group is same as in the other rounds.

Assessment of the Outcome : (10 minutes)

The teacher may assess their performance at the end,  offer suggestions and reward the winner with a small compliment.

Continuation of the Language Tour...

11.With the free tool known as Flubaroo, you can
A. Quickly grade multiple choice or fill- in -blank assignments
B.Email each student their grade and answer key
C.Create a language game for students
D.None of the above

12.Dave Abouav who created Flubaroo in 2012 is
A. An English teacher at a government school
B.A Google employee as well as a part time physics teacher
C.A chemistry teacher
D.A maths teacher

13.Which one of the following is not true of You Tube?
A. Three former PayPal employees launched it in 2005
B.Google bought YouTube for $1.65 billion in 2006
C.You tube is investing $20M towards educational content
D.You tube has started its own virtual university in China

14. Who presented the popular TED talk -"Do schools kill creativity? “
A. Steve Jobs
B.Larry page
C.Marc Prensky
D.Ken Robinson

15.Which one of the following is not written by Ken Robinson?
A. You,  Your Child and School
B.Creative Schools
C.Education to Better Their World
D.Finding Your Element

Model Questions (6 to 10) on Methods of Teaching a Language

6.Hot potatoes is
A. A software to create interactive exercises for students
B.A software with six applications created by University of Victoria, Canada
C.The name of a Mobile App to teach English grammar
D.Only A and B are correct.

7.Who is the founder of Wikipedia started in 2001?
A. James Wales
B.Mark Zuckerberg
C.Chris Hughes
D.Jack Dorsey
8.Moodle is an acronym for
A. Modular open online developed learner’s experience

B.Modular object oriented deductive learning environment
C.Modular object oriented dynamic learning environment
D.Modular object oriented diverse learning environment

9.The first version of Moodle was released by Martin Douglamas in
A. 2000
B.2012
C.2006
D.2002

10.How many blogs can be owned by a single user per account in blogger?
A. 10 blogs
B.100 blogs
C.25 blogs
D.50 blogs

Model questions on Methods of Teaching a Language

1.Which one of the following is not found in “ direct mehod”?
A. Use of audio visual
B.Use of mother tongue
C.Interaction between teacher and student
D.Teaching grammar inductively

2.Which of the following statements is wrong about grammar translation method?
A. It’s taught deductively
B.Structure is ignored,  content is focused
C.It remains ever since teaching of Latin in 1500s.
D.Pronunciation is of less importance

3.Which is not true of Total Physical Response?
A. This method was developed by James Asher.
B.It’s comprehensive approach to language teaching.
C.It is based on how young children learn their first language.
D.Effective language learning must engage left hemisphere of the brain.

4. Asher believed that
A. You speak what you listen to.
B.Language learning should be stress -free
C.Grammar should not be taught explicitly
D.All the above

5.Caleb Gattegno’s language teaching method known as “The Silent Way” is based on:
A. Teacher should concentrate on how a student learns,  not on how to teach.
B.Imitation and drill are not the only means
C.Trial and error,  deliberate experimenting,  observing and constantly assessing but never conducting a formal test are the ways of the language teacher.
D.All the above.

Answers:
1.B,    2. B,   3. D,  4.D,  5. D

Understanding the Main Clause and Subordinate Clause

Main Clause is parents and subordinate clause is children. 
A father is an independent one who lives by his own earning,  he can buy the dress he likes,  he can go wherever he likes. Similarly a main clause is one which is independent and can stand alone with complete meaning. But what about children?  They depend on their parents for food,  education,  dress,  safety and so on.  They need support and cannot stand alone. The same applies to subordinate clause that cannot stand alone and cannot give complete meaning without depending on the Main clause. If the father is the engine in a train,  children are the carriages.  Carriages cannot run alone and they need to be chained with the engine. Likewise,  a subordinate clause needs to be attached to the main clause with a conjunction that is actually the chain for binding both.

Example :
As she was sick,  she did not attend the meeting.

Main Clause : she did not attend the meeting.
Subordinate clause : As she was sick

If you just say “As she was sick” and leave it alone,  can it make a complete sense?  No.  That’s why it is called, subordinate clause.  Note that it has the conjunction “as”. So the students can simply differentiate and understand that main clause has no conjunction but subordinate clause has conjunction.

Conjunctions in English : though,  as, since,  if, unless,  that, what, where, why,  when, who, whether, how,  how long,  how many,  how much, etc.
(think why but,  so, and...  are not given here)

Special issue :
Many students identify the main clause wrongly particularly when the conjunction ‘that’ is used in the sentence. They make a division in the sentence after the conjunction ‘that ‘ just because they always read so wrongly. 

Example :
He said that / he was not aware of the incident. (wrong division)

He said / that he was not aware of the incident. (right division)

Answer :
main clause – he said
Subordinate clause -- that he was not aware of the incident.

Explanation :
You may think that “he said” does not make complete sense. But ask a specific question – who said so? The answer is – he said. Doesn’t it make  a complete sense?  Further,  the actual sentence is “he said the fact that he was not aware of the incident “ and we generally omit “the fact” and think that “he said” is incomplete.  Finally,  can you tell me any sentence that ends with a conjunction? No.  You can’t . If you say, “he said that” is a clause,  how can conjunction come in the end?  Conjunctions are used only in the beginning and middle,  never at the end.

In the exam,  they will give a sentence and you should underline only the main clause in part II,  question no. 1 and underline only the subordinate clause in part II,  question no.2. 

Simple step to score 6 out of 6 marks:
Step 1: make a division first by a slash (if the conjunction comes in the middle,  division should be before the conjunction)

Step 2: Look for the conjunction.  If a divided part has conjunction,  it is main clause.  If the divided part has no conjunction,  it is subordinate clause.  Now underline accordingly as asked.

Some more examples for you:
Underline the main clause:
1.I don’t know why he is absent today. 
Answer: I don’t know why he is absent today.

2.My teacher told me that she would not excuse next time.
Answer : My teacher told me
3.We doubt whether he will join with us today.
Answer : We doubt
Underline the subordinate clause :
1.Everyone knows where he was born.
Answer : where he was born.
2.Though she is brilliant,  she could not answer any question.
Answer : Though she is brilliant
3.Parvathi admitted that she loved Aadhi.
Answer : that she loved Aadhi.
Exercises for you:

Underline the main clause:
1.You think that I did that.
2.When I was a child,  I was so innocent.
3.Since it is raining,  we have to cancel the trip.
4.He explained how he managed the situation.
5.I saw a student who made me think of my school days.
Underline the subordinate clause :
1.Do what I say.
2.Leave me alone if you really love me.
3.Tell me what you are thinking in your mind.
4.I don’t know how long you have been waiting here for me.
5.My father said that he would meet my teacher next week.

Of Understanding the Tense Forms

Target Audience: First Year Polytechnic English teachers and students in Tamilnadu.
Subject: Communication English-1, M scheme, I semester
Objective: To enable the students understand and identify different tense forms in English.
 Question pattern in Exam: I.6. Identify the tense forms used in the following sentences. (3 marks) 
_________________________________

Understanding Tense Forms:
What happens in the world?  Either actions or events. What man does is action.  What happens to man or what nature does is event.  How can we talk about an action or an event without the use of tense form?  It is impossible, except in the case of non- verbal communication.  Even to explain tense forms (that is an action!) one needs to use tense forms.

Time is generally divided into present,  past and future.  Tense forms are those forms purposely created by man to talk about the time and state of all actions and events taking place in the world. Tense forms are actually time- forms used to describe four states of an action or event in all the three time divisions-present, past and future. The four states are: 1. Incomplete state 2. completed state,  3. Progressive or long progressive state 4. Probable state
Got it?  No?  See the images below:

Exercises for you:
Identify the tense forms used in the following sentences.
1. India had won the match.
2. We enjoyed our holidays in Ooty.
3. I will submit my Record Note tomorrow.
4. Mobile had stolen much of our time.
5. Money plays a vital role in everybody’s life.
6. He is cheating you.
7. We have been living here since 2005.
8. The teacher had almost finished her lesson.
9. They were discussing the recent movie Kolamavu Gokila.

10. I will be waiting for you.

Find the Odd word based on the verb forms

Target Audience: First Year Polytechnic English teachers and students in Tamilnadu.
Subject: Communication English-1, M scheme, I semester
Objective : To identify and understand different verb forms in English.
Question pattern in Exam: I.5. Find the Odd word based on the  verb forms. (3 marks) 

________________________
Introduction to Verbs :

Just try to form any sentence in English without the use of verb.   Can you?  You can’t.  Because verb is the soul of a sentence and no sentence can function without at least one verb.  “Can you make the shortest sentence in English with one word?” that was the question in an interview. Of course,  the answer is simple and you can make thousands of such sentences: Come,  Go,  Turn, Wait… …

What do you do?  What do you have?  How are you? How do you feel?  A word that answers these four questions is called a verb.  Now check it with the answers : 1. I speak truth.  2. I have her photo with me.  3. I am beautiful. (why to say always fine!)  4. I can lift even this mountain.
Understanding the Verb Forms through a  Simple Table:

                                                      
Examination  Patterns (find the Odd word)
Model – 1
Three past tense verbs and one present tense verb or the vice  versa will be given .

Examples :
1.Became,  completed,  worked,  take. (Odd word : take)
2.Bring,  sleep,  wrote,  think (Odd word : wrote)

Model 2
Three regular verbs and one irregular verbs or the vice versa will be given. 

Examples :
1.Call,  buy,  open,  connect (Odd word : buy because it is irregular while the  other three are regular verbs)
2.Prepare,  send,  come,  leave (Odd word : prepare because it is regular while the  other three are irregular verbs) 

Model 3
Mixture of main verb and auxiliary verb will be given and you have to find the Odd word. 

Examples :
1.Decide,  are,  have,  can (Odd word : decide because it is a main verb while the  other three are auxiliary verbs)
2.Ring,  clear,  argue,  would (Odd word : would because it is an auxiliary verb while the  other three are main verbs) 

Model 4
Mixture of one kind of auxiliary and other kinds will be given and you have to find the Odd one. 

Examples :
1.Was,  are,  should,  is (Odd word : should because it is a modal auxiliary verb while the  other three are be form auxiliary verbs)
2.Will,  may,  must,  have (Odd word : have because it is a have form auxiliary verb while the  other three are modal auxiliary verbs)

Beware of the common mistakes done by many students! : Students try to find the Odd word by pronouncing each word,  perhaps, getting confused with the first grammar exercise in the question paper.  Remember that here odd word should be found based on verb forms only not based on pronunciation .

Exercises for you:
Find the Odd word based on the  verb forms.
1.Look,  learn,  lift,  left
2.Sang,  rang,  sing,  failed
3.Read,  advise,  kill,  bill
4.Run,  slip,  bring,  lay
5.Tear,  was, has,  must
6.Can,  could,  ought,  thought
7.Do,  did,  could,  does
8.Shall,  should,  may,  am
9.Repaired,  finished,  submitted,  left
10.Sit,  stand,  jump,  go

Use of Plurals in English

Target Audience: First Year Polytechnic English teachers and students in Tamilnadu.
Subject: Communication English-1, M scheme, I semester
Objective: To enable the students recognize, form and use Plurals in English.
Question pattern in Exam: I.4. Write the Plurals in the blanks (3 marks)
----------------------------------------------------------------------------
Why plurals?
We generally use plurals to refer to countable nouns which are more than one in number.  Example : boy-boys,  city – cities and message – messages .  If everything ends with one,  then Maths has to lose its entire property.  Imagine the world without plurals :A man has to remain a bachelor (singular) with the ego “I”, not with love to say “we”.  A wife can make only a complaint,  not Complaints. People will have worry,  not worries.  There will be only God,  not gods.

Regular and Irregular  Plurals :
Most of the English singular nouns become plurals by just adding -s to them. These plurals  are called regular plurals. Yes,  chair-chairs,  girl-girls and chance-chances.

Irregular plurals are those which are formed not just by adding -s but in different ways and sometimes in mysterious ways like sages without any change both in singular and plural: tax-taxes,  wife-wives,  strawberry -strawberries,  child-children,  man-men and fish-fish.

Rules for changing singular into plural:
Rule 1
Add -es if a word ends in -ch,  -x,  -s or -ss

Examples : watch -watches,  batch-batches,  box-boxes,  fox-foxes,  bus-buses, gas-gases  kiss-kisses

Rule 2
Change the -fe and -f endings into –ves

Examples: life- lives,  knife-knives,  leaf-leaves,  shelf-shelves

Rule 3
A vowel + y ending just adds -s but a consonant +y changes the -y into -ies.

Examples : boy-boys, ,toy -toys , way-ways but lorry-lorries,  baby-babies,  lady-ladies

Rule 4
Certain nouns become plurals with internal vowel change.

Examples : man-men,  woman-women,  foot-feet,  tooth-teeth,  mouse-mice,  goose-geese

Rule 5
Nouns ending in -o are careless guys since they take -s or -es or both sometimes to form their plurals.

Examples : (-es only) hero-heroes,  potato -potatoes,  echo-echoes,  tomato-tomatoes
                    (-s only)  auto-autos,  photo-photos,  video -videos,  memo -memos,  piano -pianos
                    (both -s and -es are correct)  motto -mottos and mottoes,  mosquito -mosquitos and mosquitoes, zero -zeros and zeroes,  volcano -volcanos and volcanoes

Rule 6
Some words totally change in plural forms.

Examples : person – people , child -children , ox-oxen,  penny -pence,  die-dice , he - they,  I - we

Rule 7
Some words never change both in singular and plural.

Examples : fish, deer,  sheep,  swine,  aircraft and spacecraft , you - you

Rule 8
Some nouns have no plural at all and they are only used as singular.

Examples : Information,  luggage,  baggage, furniture, equipment

Rule 9
Foreign plurals are formed differently in the following ways :

A. -is ending into -es: axis-axes,  basis-bases,  synopsis -synopses,  thesis -theses
B.Change -us ending into -i : alumnus-alumni,  syllabus. -syllabi,  nucleus -nuclei,  stimulus -stimuli
C.Change -um and -on ending into -a : bacterium -bacteria,  medium -media,  datum-data, symposium -symposia , criterion -criteria

Rule 10
Beware of some problematic singular nouns that will tempt you to change their adjectives into plurals not the nouns.  If both words are nouns in a compound word,  change both into plural as in the fourth example given below.

A. Brother-in-law ----- brothers-in-law (not brother-in-laws)
B.Passerby ------- passersby (not passerbys)
C.Poet laureate ------ poets laureate (not poet laureates)
D.Man- servant ------- men -servants
(Sister-in-law ,  father-in-law  and mother-in-law follow the same way as given for the first example above.)

Exercise for you:
Write the plurals in the blanks.

1._________(kid)  like ice-cream,  don’t they?

2.They were punished for hunting _________ (deer).

3.The fight between _________(mother-in-law)  and _________ (daughter-in-law )is an eternal issue in India.

4.These engineers are actually _________(alumnus)  of our college.

5.The dentist replaced my ________ (tooth) with artificial ones.

6.Some ________ (lady) are like ________ (lorry) and are likely to be met with accident but some others are like _______ (baby) who teach you innocence.

7.________(wife)  are _______ (knife) and need to be handled with utmost care.

8.The _______ (syllabus)  framed by experts nowadays are substandard or impractical.

9.Downloading _______ (photo)  and _______(video) more brings your data balance into zero soon.

10._______ (person)  with ______(penny)  are without _______ (child)  and vice versa.

The Tale of Melibee by Chaucer

Summary of the tale with criticism:

The Tale of Sir Topaz by Chaucer

After the tragic tale told by Prioress in Canterbury Tales, the host invites Chaucer the pilgrim to tell a tale of mirth. Chaucer begins his tale of Sir Topaz in rhymes.

There was a fair and brave knight called Sir Topaz in Flanders. He was the son of a Lord and skilled at archery, hunting and wresting.  All women of his place pined for him with love but he liked none of them. He dreamed of an Elf Queen who could be his best match.  It so happened that one day as usual he went through a forest for hunting animals. He was so tired of a long ride and fell asleep in a drowsy place. When he woke up, his longing for a fairy queen was more. His search for the elf queen brought him to an unknown fairy land where a mighty giant threatened him to flee from the place lest he should smash his horse with his club. He cast thrones at him and the knight challenged him to kill after coming back with full armour. 

Sir Topaz prepared himself in fine armour for his battle with the giant and was cheered by his men to win the laurel.  Now Sir Topaz, the flower of royal chivalry flew from his place like sparks out of the flame.  The host being greatly disappointed, interrupts Chaucer and yells,
“No more of this for God’s great dignity!...
Your idle rhyming is not worth a turd!
You do nothing else but waste our time.”
He asks Chaucer to try something in prose rather than in poetry that does not suit him well. This the Tale of Sir Topaz thus falls incomplete.

Criticism:
The tale is told in three fits in a grand manner but it doesn't fit to Chaucer. Why does Chaucer the greatest poet make fun of himself allowing the host Harry Bailey to ridicule at him? The tales by all pilgrims are in fact told by Chaucer only but why should he assign such a worthless incomplete story with long tedious descriptions with little action to him? The host has insisted him to tell a tale of mirth but why does Chaucer proceed to tell a tale of chivalry? All remains a mystery. Chaucer's excuse cannot belittle his worth since the tale is a new try in the mock-heroic sense. Thomas Warton says that the whole tale is a parody and the character of Chaucer should not be confused with Chaucer the author.

The Shipman's Tale by Chaucer

Summary and Review:

The Pardoner's Tale by Chaucer

This fourteenth tale in Canterbury Tales has a “physician-pardoner link" in which the host reviews the physician's tale as the most striking one arousing pity in everyone and says that the very beauty of Virginia has turned the Judge mad and has brought death to her as the gifts of fortune and nature always cause death to many good people. The host invites the Pardoner to tell a merry tale now to ease the pilgrims. But the pilgrims are afraid that the Pardoner may tell a quite obscene tale and so they insist him to tell a moral tale to which he agrees and begins his prologue to his tale. 

The Prologue throws a good deal of light on the character of the Pardoner and his way of preaching. He says that his theme of all preaching is “the love of money is the root of all evil", but he himself confesses that he commits that very sin. He is skilful in selling his relics to his folks. He shows a brass shoulder-bone of a holy jew's dead sheep and convinces people that if it is washed in a well, the well water will get the power to cure the cattle stung by snake. He also has a glove that will empower the user to multiply his grain. He reserves such relics not for sinners or cuckold but for good people, especially the unlettered ones.   Since he is drunk now, he unfolds his heart that he must have money, wool, cheese, wheat, wine and a jolly young woman in every town.  He thus begins his tale:
“For though myself, I’m a sinful man,
Tell you a moral tale? Well, that I can"

There was a wicked city named Flanders with full of gamblers, drunkards, thieves, lechers, gluttons and liars.  There, a company of three young friends sat in a tavern and indulged in drinking.  They could see a coffin carried to the grave and knew from their servant boy that the dead man is none other than one of their old friends and was slain at drunken state last night by a thief called Death who then stole his breath.  Both the boy and the innkeeper revealed that the thief had killed thousands of people in the nearby village of pestilence and his habitation must probably be there.  The three friends swore to join together and kill the thief.  They rushed to the village and found an old man who was ever wandering and looking for someone  who is young and may exchange the youth for his old age.  Asked upon the whereabouts of the thief, the old man directed them to reach the end of the lane nearby and find the thief under a tree there. 

The three profligates found but eight bushels of fine gold coins under the tree.  The most wicked of them suggested to enjoy the time with bread and wine and carry the gold home late at night without the knowledge of others. They drew a lot and sent the youngest one to go to the city for fetching food and wine. The Two friends safeguarding the gold plotted to kill the other one on his return in a pretended game.  But the one who brought wine added poison it to kill the remaining two so as to possess the entire gold. Thus all the three encountered Death.

After telling the story, as he used to do with his folk, now the Pardoner begs for money showing his relics.  He asks the host first to try his relics or bull (pope's order of pardon) to clear of his sins. The raged host bursts,
“I would I had your bollocks in my hand,
Instead of relics or some reliquary!
Have them cut off, them I’ll help you carry,
And they shall be enshrined in a hog's turd.”
The Knight intervenes them and ease the situation by bringing them near and kiss each other friendly.

Criticism:
We can forgive the Pardoner for his greed and hypocrisy but how can we, when he says, he “must have jolly wench in every town!”?  There bursts a hilarious laughter when the Pardoner starts begging from his own fellow pilgrims with his so called relics.  Who can  portray and ridicule at the corrupt Pardoner better than Chaucer? The tale is but a widespread moral story for children often making its presence nowadays in hints development exercise and the theme is ‘sin of avarice' – money is the root of all evil. The story of three brothers in the Harry potter universe and Rudyard Kipling's “the King's Ankus” in the Second Jungle Book are modelled on this Pardoner's tale.

As for pardoner's character, he who preaches against what he practices is an antithesis to Parson who preaches what he practices.  In the beginning of the tale, or even in the prologue, the Pardoner is simply making a mountain out of the molehill and to a greater portion, it is full of morals: to condemn drunkenness, he quotes Seneca and to deplore gluttony, he quotes Paul. Thus a long lecture frequents to elucidate each wickedness. The allegorical significance of the story is another aspect worth mentioning. Death is personified as a thief who steals one's breath and the three so called friends, being hungry for money, are stolen of their breath by the thief under the tree.  Their drunkenness, gluttony and avarice join together and bring their fatal end. Some critics have seen the old man as Death’s messenger as well.

The Physician’s Tale by Chaucer

This is the thirteenth tale in “Canterbury Tales” by Chaucer.

A knight called Virginius has a fourteen years old daughter named Virginia endowed with beauty and all other virtues that the world may envy of.  Nature has, as Chaucer says, created her with such excellence that no one can show a counterfeit. To be fair and virtuous is not a sin but it tempts others to sin.  It so bechances in the case of Appius, the Judge of the town who is smitten by her beauty. Evil runs into his heart and he says:
“This maid shall be mine, before any man!”

With foul appetite, the lustful judge schemes to bring false charges against her father and thereby to own her.  He finds a rogue called Claudius who agrees to his plan being threatened.  He accuses the knight that he had stolen his servant Virginia and whom he pretended to be his daughter.  Though the Judge says,

“……. In the defendant’s absence,
I cannot bring this new case to sentence.
Summon him and I shall gladly hear;
You shall have justice, not injustice here”

he, after fetching the knight to the court, gives no chance to him to defend himself.  He immediately orders the knight to bring forth her daughter and leave her to Claudius for ever.  The knight is struck with horror to know the plot of the Judge and Claudius. 
What can a helpless father like Virginius do? He returns home with his face as dead as ashes and asks her daughter to die in his hand rather than being ashamed of losing her virginity to the evil judge. Virginia compares herself to Jephtha in the bible and tells her father,

“Blessed be God That I shall die a maid!
Grant me death before I come to shame.
Do with your child as you will, in God’s name.”

The father strikes off her head and takes it to the Judge who, in rage, sentences the knight to death.  But people who have come to know of the villainy of the Judge and Claudius rushes to the court to riot on behalf of the father.  The judge is then put into jail where he commits suicide in shame.  Claudius is also sentenced to death but, upon the knight's plea, he is exiled instead.  All others, having a part in this crime, are either exiled or hanged. The physician ends his tale with a moral:
“Forsake sin, before sin may you forsake.”

Criticism:
This moral story is based on the histories of Titus Livius and is retold by Chaucer in his “Romance of the Rose” and John Gower's “Confessio Amantis”.  It also resembles a little the story of Jephthah in the bible who, to keep his vow, kills her own virgin daughter.  Reference to Virginius is also found in Shakespeare’s “Titus Andronicus” in which Lavinia is killed by her father not to outlive the shame of rape.

The theme of the story is “consent and sacrifice" and it is also a moral allegory with characters such as Virginius, Virginia and Appius.  Strangely this tale, unlike others in the Canterbury collection, is brief, simple and direct without a prologue and epilogue.  The end is sudden and unbelievable.  How fast furious people of the town change the course of the story! Claudius having direct connection is not killed but many, being ‘accessories to the wickedness', are hanged.  But Chaucer hasn't told anything of these accessories anywhere in the story.  Above all, is not gross injustice to leave foul Claudius alive and behead virtuous Virginia? The story proclaims the moral of the bible: “the wages of sin is death" but what is the sin committed by Virginia? The judgement to the judge is also sudden and unconvincing.  The continuity between Franklin’s Tale and this Physician's tale is also mysteriously missing and the story straightaway begins leaving no clue whether it follows the Franklin’s.

The Franklin’s Tale by Chaucer

This is the twelfth tale in “The Canterbury Tales" written by Chaucer.

The Squire who started his tale in a grand manner with magical elements is unable to continue his tale. (Perhaps Chaucer had a great plan but suffered from insufficient time).  So Chaucer introduces “The Squire-Franklin link” in which Franklin appreciates Squire for his successful attempt and wise acquittance:
“In Faith, Squire, well you did yourself acquit,
And right nobly too; I applaud your wit.”

From the prologue, we come to know that Franklin has a son who is a good for nothing fellow, always playing dice with his ill-mannered friends.  Franklin is jealous of the noble Squire, the son of Knight and longs to have such a son.  Now, directed by the Host, he begins to narrate his tale.

The Franklin’s Tale:
A noble knight called Arveragus, living in Armorica falls in love with a beautiful maiden named Dorigen who, filled with compassion for his woe, gives green signal.  He swears,
“That never in all his life, day or night,
Would he take upon himself the mastery,
Against her will, not show her jealousy,
But obey her and follow her will in all.”
She also takes a pledge, “ I will be your humble loyal wife.”

They get married and live in bliss a year or two till the knight leaves for England to pursue his honour in military services.  In his absence, she mourns, wails, fasts, cries, languishes and longs for his presence.  Her friends try at their best to change her mood by all means but in vain.  Above all, the numerous devilish rocks on the shore which have sucked 'a hundred thousand souls' by causing shipwreck annoy and threaten her a lot.  Her friends who are now half successful in lifting up her soul takes her to a garden for dance and play where she chances to see the most handsome squire Aurelius who has loved her two years or more but only now dares to unfold his heart to her. She makes no compromise with her fidelity to her husband.  She, however, playfully and teasingly assigns him a Herculean task:
“I say when the coast is rendered so clean,
Of rocks, that never a stone can be seen-
Then I will love you more than any man.”

With tears running down his cheeks, he laments and prays to God Apollo to ask his sister Luna, the goddess of sea to raise a great flood to wash away the highest rocks on the shore in Brittany.  He soon swoons in woe. 

His brother, filled with pity, takes him to France where he knows a friend well-versed in magic who may perhaps help them.  They meet a conjurer who makes an illusion of forests, parks with deer, hounds hunting them, knights jousting on a pain and Dorigen dancing with him.  These visions stand testimony to the skill of the magician who makes an agreement with Aurelius to fulfil his demand for thousand pounds. 

The next day, the philosopher in magic goes to Brittany and with the spell of his magic, makes an illusion of complete disappearance of all rocks on the shore.  Aurelius goes to Dorigen and asks her to verify the clean shore devoid of rocks and reminds her of her promise to love him. She stands astonished to see this miracle and curses herself for the pledge she made.  She decides to die rather than getting defiled of her chastity. She remembers thousands of women of the past who dared to die rather than fall a victim to their foe:  When thirty tyrants slew Phedon and ordered to seize his daughters for dancing nakedly before them, these woeful maidens jumped into a well and drowned themselves;  When Romans seized the city of Carthage, Hasdrubal's fair wife with all her children leaped into fire lest the enemies should ravage her.  She also remembers Homer's Penelope who ended her life after knowing the death of Protesilaus, and the noble Portia who dared not to outlive her husband Brutus.  Thus the list goes endless.

Dorigen is determined to die but her husband Avergarus who has recently returned from England comes to know the reason behind her distress.  He who values keeping one’s word as the noblest thing asks her to keep her promise to Aurelius and, with almost lost soul, sends her to him.  But Aurelius, after knowing the nobility of the knight and the distress of virtuous Dorigen, is reluctant to fulfil his foul appetite. He releases her from her pledge and from her bondage to him.  The knight and Dorigen live together happily thereafter.  Aurelius now realises that he does not have thousand pounds to pay the magician.  He makes an appeal that he may be permitted to pay 500 pounds now and the remaining on instalment basis in a year or two lest he should sell all his estates to pay his debit at once.  The noble-hearted magician, after knowing the change of Aurelius' mind in Dorigen's case, relieves him from the agreement completely. Franklin ends his tale by raising a question to his fellow pilgrims – “who among the four is the noblest and the most generous?”

Criticism:
The story presents four noble hearts – the knight Avergarus to whom observing one's promise is more important than keeping fidelity to the life partner; his wife Dorigen who would rather die than being unfaithful to her husband; the squire Aurelius who sacrifices his love for the betterment of the lady he loves; the noble magician who refuses to get his payment of 1000 pounds on moral ground. Dorigen is, in fact,  the other extreme of January in the Merchant's Tale who cuckolds her husband by maintaining an illegal affair with the squire Damian. Further, Chaucer's deep insight into love, marriage, the life of Knight, the pains of separation and black magic can be traced out here. This is a significant story in which each character falls victim to their own desire – the knight finds his interest in war and is about to lose his wife, Dorigen desires the rocks to be washed away and makes her own trap out of her love for her husband; Aurelius risks all his property to win the knight’s wife without whom he is no more. However two mysteries are still remaining unanswered: first, the squire-Franklin link which fails to answer why the squire left his tale unfinished; secondly, nothing happens to Dorigen who but cites examples of more than 17 faithful women, from Greek and Roman literature, to justify her death.  It is rather surplus and makes the readers grow impatient.

The Squire's Tale by Chaucer

When the Merchant finishes his tale, the host invites the squire, the son of the Knight to tell an interesting tale of romance.  The Squire, obeying his order, narrates a story as follows:

PART ONE
Once a king called Cambiuskan ruled Sarai with his wife Elpheta.  He had two sons Algarsife and Cambalo and a beautiful daughter named Canace.  While the king was celebrating his twentieth anniversary of his successful sovereignty in a grand manner, there came a knight in the middle of the celebration with some magical gifts – a brass horse, a magical ring, a sword and a mirror. He said that these were the gifts from the King of Araby to Cambiuskan and each one had its own unique unbelievable magical power.

The house of brass, so high and majestic, could fly in the sky and the king, by using the pins in its ears can go anywhere in the world within twenty four hours and could make it disappear from others' sight if he wished.  The second gift, the magical mirror can be used to see anything that is hidden, whether it is a treason against the king or the illegal love affair of a knight to deceive Canace.  The third gift, the magical sword can pierce through any armour and its flat surface,  if pressed on , can close the wounds and make the person alive.  The fourth one, the magical ring enables the wearer to hear the voice of birds and animals and the person can even communicate with them.  The King, lords and all people of the country get amazed at magical qualities of the gifts. The feast and celebration continues till the day.

PART TWO
The king's daughter Canace, awakened by her old governess, goes for a walk through a park, accompanied by her attendants.  With the help of the magic ring, She is capable of understanding everything that the birds speak.  She chances to see a female falcon grieving, stabbing itself with her beaks and shrieking loudly and deeply expressing her sorrow.  Canace understands that the falcon was once proposed by a hawk who was but a hypocrite, a serpent lurking under flowers.  Her lover appeared fair in manners but his villainy in heart existed just as a tomb looks fair above but has a corpse beneath.  The falcon reciprocated its love and both lived happily for sometime.  But one day the hawk took leave of the falcon with a promise to come back.  The falcon believed his words but he did not return.  It was so painful to the falcon to see her lover one day with another kite, the new lady-love.  With broken heart, the falcon lamented and wept alone, shrieking and wounding itself.  With great bleeding, it now fell from the tree but Canace spread her skirt wide and caught the wounded falcon.  She took it home and dressed its wounds to the cure. 

The Squire proposes to tell later how the falcon claimed her life again helped by the king's daughter.  He now proceeds to tell the war adventures of the king Cambiuskan, how his son Algarsife won the love of Theodora with the help of the house of brass and how Cambalo fought for Canace in a critical situation.

PART THREE
With just two lines as given below, the squire leaves the tale unfinished.
“Apollo whirled his chariot up so high,
Into the God’s house, Mercury the sly,”

Criticism:
Unlike the wife of Bath, the Squire is very brief in his prologue but bombastic and too elaborate in his narration that is incomplete like the Cook's Tale.  His description of celebration and the greatness of horse of brass repeats itself at regular intervals and tests the readers' patience a lot.  Of all the pilgrims, this squire is the first one to express his belief in magical elements.  The chief source of his well begun story has been identified as "The Romance of the Rose" by Guillame de Lorris. Though the tale is unfinished, It reveals Chaucer's experience as a squire himself in his life and it is also sublime with poetic splendour at certain places, especially when Canace expresses her pity for the wounded falcon:
“You slay me with your sorrow, verily.”

The Merchant’s Tale by Chaucer

Next to the Oxford scholar, the Merchant proceeds to tell his tale. It's known from his prologue that the marriage has become so painful to him.  It is just two years since he married but he has experienced a lot from his ill-tempered wife whose ‘exceeding cruelty' is in contrast with the 'wondrous patience' of Griselda in Oxford scholar's tale.   He has no words to describe the cruelty of his bitter half and swears that she can outmatch any devil at once.  Now he begins his tale.

The Merchant’s Tale
A sixty years old knight named January, living in Lombardy is tired of his bachelor's life and wishes to be wedded now.  He analyses the advantages and disadvantages of a married life.  A single man may rejoice at freedom like a bird or beast but it is marriage that leads to a blissful life. Marriage is but a paradise, God’s gift that helps to find a wife, makes the couples face life in one heart both in joys and misery.  God made eve out of Adam for his help, pleasures, companionship and consolation. Above all the knight needs a son to inherit his estates.   He wants to marry a girl who should be the fairest of all, and her age not more than twenty, for he, being 'old fish,' wants young flesh every day.  He doesn't prefer even a woman of thirty who may lack taste and delicacy.  He, however, seeks the counsel of his friends in this regard.  All offer him good score including his wise friend Placebo but Justinius warns him that he cannot satisfy his wife and since he is old, soon he would become a cuckold. Destiny overrules.  He weds May, in whose rarest beauty, he finds himself completely lost.  Though he labors a lot till daylight in his bed, May estimates his 'dalliance not worth the bean.'

It's likely in the case of any young woman like May to cuckold her sexually feeble husband.  It so happens that Damian, one of the most faithful squires of January loves May at first sight on the very day of wedding celebrations. He becomes lovesick more and more and is bedridden. He writes a letter expressing his love and keeps it in a silk purse.  When the knight is reported of his illness, he sends May to visit him and comfort him to recover him from illness.  Damian gives her the purse that she secretly keeps in her bosom, reads it in the rest room and destroys it there lest others should know about that.  Pity creeps into her gentle spirit and she too writes a letter to him reciprocating his love.  Now and then, they exchange smiles, signals and sighs of love by means of non-verbal communication. 

The knight has a beautiful private garden that even gods would envy of.  Whenever it pleases him, he used to take his May there and rejoice. The garden is fortified with a fencing of wall and none but the knight has the key to enter there.  One day, suddenly the knight loses his eyesight completely and weeps and laments a lot on this.  In course of time, he becomes all right but then always takes his wife hand in hand wherever he goes.  The paramours Damian and May are left with no chance for their romance.  However May manages to take the wax impression of the garden key and pass it over to Damian.  As per her direction, he comes in advance to the garden before the couples arrive and hides himself behind a bush.

The knight and May enters the private garden and the latter gives a signal to Damian to climb up the pear tree.  On the other side of the garden, Pluto and his wife Proserpine take note of all these events.  Pluto condemns all women for their infidelity, taking May as a typical example.  He declares to bring back the eye sight of the knight at the right time to expose his wife's villainy.  Proserpine on the other hand reveals his displeasure against all men who are as unfaithful as Damian who betrays his own master.  She proposes to empower May with such a spoken skill to escape the wrath of her husband. 

May now pretends to have a burning for the pear fruit without which she will die.  The knight is stone blind and he has no servants to climb up the tree.  But she asks the knight to bend down, puts her foot on his back, climbs up the tree and permits Damian have his hunger fulfilled.  At this right time, as already declared, Pluto gives January his eye sight back who gets mad to see his wife and Damian rejoicing at each other. He cries out , “Out, help! Rape! Alas!”.  Now, influenced by Proserpine, May says that she is 'struggling' with a man in tree sincerely to cure his blindness out of such a shock.  Just as a man recently awakened from sleep could not see anything clearly, the knight, just now recovering from blindness, could not eye clearly what is happening in the tree.  This is her explanation and pretext. Then the knight beseeches her to forgive him for mistaking her with a vision as if enjoyed by Damian.  May comes down from the tree and the knight goes with her to live happily  thereafter. Thus ends the tale of January told by the Merchant.
In the epilogue, the host says that his wife is also an ill-tempered one but she has never been an unfaithful one.  He doesn't want to complaint more about her vices since someone in the company may leak out everything top her and then he will be in trouble.
Criticism:

This tale has given birth to the popular phrase “January-May wedding" that refers to the marriage between an old one and the younger one.  The names used here are symbolic – January, the knight with hair ad old as the snow, May, his wife as young as May flowers, Justinius the righteous man, etc.  Again folly of old age is a common theme extending up to Shakespeare's King Lear whose dotage leads to his eternal agony.  "Pear-tree episode" that Chaucer has employed here successfully is yet another popular theme in those days.  Bacon's exploration of the advantages and disadvantages of marriage and single life seems to have emerged from this tale wherein the knight elaborately discusses the same while choosing to marry a young maiden, calling a wife, as Bacon does, a nurse a good friend throughout the life.

The Clerk of Oxford's Tale by Chaucer

The Prologue to the Clerk of Oxford's Tale:
Next to the summoner, the host turns to the Oxford scholar who is as coy and silent as a newly wedded wife and asks him to narrate his tale that should be a merry tale, not the one that is moralistic and kindles them to weep for their past sins.  Now the clerk begins the tale of Greselda from Francis Petrarch who had illuminated the whole Italy with his poetry.  The main source of this story is the last chapter in Boccaccio's “Decameron”.

The Clerk of Oxford’s Tale
PART ONE
Saluzzo in Italy is  beautiful and fertile city and a landscape of delight ruled by Walter the Marquis. The King is a lover of freedom and pleasure and wisely avoids marriage that may entangle him into new responsibilities and bangle his joys.  To think of no heir is a great fear to the people and Lords of his country who unfold their woe and beseech the king to wive.  They awaken him on the uncertainty of life and the necessity of legal heir to the throne:
“ And though your green youth flowers bright,
In creeps age always, quite as a stone.
That through your death your line should forsake
Our land, and a strange successor take
Your Heritage, O, woe to us alive!”

The way in which they request impresses him who then consents to wed.  His folk however seek assurance and certainty in his statement and meekly request him to fix a deadline.  The King chooses a day and, commanded by the king, a grand feast is arranged on the specified date.

PART TWO
People could not decipher whom the king is going to wed. Not far from the palace there was a village wherein lived a poor man with his daughter Griselda. No woman was so fair, virtuous and benign as Griselda under the sun.  She was, with no leaf left, in all the pages of King's love book.  With all his retinue, in full array, the king reached her home.  Both Griselda and her father Janicula were in seventh heaven to hear the king's decision.  However, the king, an epitome of male chauvinism lay down a condition that she should swear that she would never speak or do anything against his will:

“I say, you must be ready with good heart
To do my pleasure, and that I freely may…
And never must you grudge it, night or day,
And also when I say “yes,” never say “nay.”
Neither in words, nor in frowning countenance,
“Swear this and I wear to this alliance.”

What kind of horrible and inhuman condition it is! Is woman a human being or a mere robot to be programmed by her husband? Griselda says with full modesty and humility, but without individuality and self-esteem,

“And here I swear that always till I die,
Will I willingly in work or thought obey,
On pains of death…”

With this marriage treaty, the king espoused her and took her to the palace.  Griselda who was brought up in ox's stall now started living in Emperor's hall. Time passed on. She gave birth to a baby girl and people came to see this beautiful baby, hoped that she would at least bear a baby boy to the throne in near future.

PART THREE
King Marquis wants to test his wife, her constancy.  He tells her that it is he who has brought her to 'a state of nobleness from her poor array.'  He reminds her of her vow to do whatever pleases him.  He tells her that his noblemen do not like him to live with a poor woman of a village, and especially they detest her issue of a baby girl.  He has to do certain things for their will, though it will be painful to him.  She humbly says,

“My child and I, with true obedience,
Are all yours, and you may save or kill.
Your own things: work then as you will.”

Marquis leaves her chamber and sends to her room his confidant who is a sergeant.  What kind of cruel test it is to take away a new-born baby from her own mother!  From the very words and look of this sergeant, she understands that her child is going to be slain.  She kisses her child, hands it over to the sergeant.  The King is much pleased to know her patience and steadfast from the sergeant.  He however commands him to safely entrust the child to the care of his (King's) sister, a countess.  He insists that under no circumstances the identity of the child should be revealed to anyone. He then comes to Griselda's chamber to find her  present status but she complaints of nothing, speaks no words of woe and does her service as usual without any trace of her loss.

PART FOUR
After four years, Griselda begets a baby boy.  When she weans her child at the age of two, the king is carried away by another whim to test his wife's fidelity.  What happened to the first child befalls to the second as well.  She kisses her child and hands it over to the sergeant who in turn, commanded by the king, without the knowledge of others, takes the child to the care of King's sister.  Even now, Griselda makes no complaint and patiently unfolds her heart,

“For as I left at home all my clothing
When I first came to you,
I left my will and all my liberty…”

The King realises that none can surpass his wife in endurance of adversity. Still he thinks of other means testing– what else remains? When his daughter grows into twelve, he demands and gets a forged Papal Bull, an authentic order and permission from Pope of Rome to legally disown Griselda and marry another girl. He is going to pretend to marry a twelve years girl who is none other than the one being brought up by his sister.  None but the king alone knows, the girl is his own daughter and his plan is just to stage a drama to test his wife. The King now bids his sister to bring back his children, without revealing their royal blood to anyone.

PART FIVE
The king declares before Griselda and all his lords in open court of his second marriage.  He orders his wife to go back to her father's house leaving all his things in the palace, and stay there till the end of her life.  She cannot return to her village as naked as a lamb or worm and requests the king to permit her go dressed in her smock. The King permits.  It is so pathetic and lamenting to all people, in weeping and in tears, to see her dressed in undergarments.  They follow her to her village from where they had brought her as a queen. Her old father comes running to cover her with a cloak and starts weeping to see her helpless state. She lives in agony with her father for a  while and on the day of his supposed second marriage, the king again calls her to serve him and to do arrangements for the feast.  She patiently consents and takes up all the assigned works with gratitude.  Now, pointing out the young maiden whom he is going to marry, the king asks her opinion.  She says that she is the fairest of all and  God may bless him to live in all pleasures and prosperity till his end.  Now the king is so astonished to see her steadfast patience, humility, obedience and love for him. Since she had passed all her tests, the king unfolds all secrets now.  She swoons at once to hear this and after recovery kisses her children with tears of joy. His son becomes the successor to the throne and both children hear their marriage bell in the ripe time. At the end of his tale, the Oxford scholar sings a song in praise of Griselda and her virtues. However Chaucer makes a warning that no husband should test his wife in this way since it is very difficult to find Griseldas nowadays.  He also advises women not to follow Griselda:

“ o noble wives, full of lofty prudence,
Allow not humility, your tongue to nail.
Do not be cowed in your innocence.
But take on you the mastery without fail.”
The story is told for the reason, as Chaucer says, to learn humility in adversity in the trials of God.

Is the king a sadist? His repeated test resulting in inexplicable torments of his wife questions the very love he has four her.  Though he makes excuses that his motive is not to torture Griselda but to testify her constancy, no husband would dare to test his wife by sending her back half-nakedly to her father's house or getting a court order to marry a girl who is but his own daughter.  Griselda is an antithesis to Wife of Bath.  The former succumbs to the male chauvinism whereas the latter adheres to sovereignty over husband.  Griselda, on the other hand, manifests steadfast Christian love for Jesus Christ and surpasses even Christ who is put to several tests by Satan in the wilderness.  She, constantly tested by her husband can be compared with Job in the bible who is assayed by Satan repeatedly by several means.  Chaucer's admiration for the Italian poet Petrarch, who translated Boccaccio's work on Griselda in 1374 is also apparent in his description of his poetic skill in the beginning by the Oxford scholar.

The Summoner's Tale by Chaucer

This is the Ninth story in Chaucer's Canterbury Tales.  It has a prologue  In which the summoner hits the ceiling to take revenge on the Friar for his insulting story of a summoner.

The Prologue to the Summoner's Tale
The summoner jumps to his feet to counter-attack and asks other pilgrims to recall the well known story of a friar who was once taken by an angel to Hell where no friar was found.  The Friar was so proud and told the angel that hell was not the place meant for gracious friars. But the angel asked the Satan to lift up its big tail. Now there swarmed out twenty thousand friars from the anus of Saturn just like the bees from the hive.  After making a grand show, they again went back to their resting place. The Friar was so tormented in the hell and however God showed grace and restored the spirit of the Friar to his body.  God awakened the friar who was but still shivering in fear obsessed with devil’s arse.  By describing the nature of all friars like this, now the summoner ends his prologue and begins his tale.

The Summoner's Tale
A money minded friar, after collecting money from his parishioners in the church by songs and prayers, moves from house to house to beg for peer, whisky, wheat, corn, cheese and blanket from people.  He takes with him his comrade with a writing table and pen to write the name of the sinners and a boy to carry a sack to store the collected things.

Now the Friar enters the house of Thomas who is rich but old and sick.  The Friar says that Thomas has to contribute more to the convent to find recovery from his illness.  The Friar also kisses and embraces Thomas's wife who comes there and she suggests the Friar to advise her short-tempered husband.  The Friar condemns Thomas for being angry with his fair and meek wife and gives some examples how wrath has brought misery to the great men of the past.

In his first example, a story from Seneca, the Friar talks about a watchful ruler.  Once two knights  drove out in night but the next day only one returned. Then the judge, in suspicion, ordered death sentence to him for killing the other knight. The accused is taken by another knight to the place where he has to die.  To their great surprise, the lost knight appears there and so both knights are brought to the judge now.  The judge grows angry and  sentences all the three to be executed - the first knight as already ordered, the second knight who became the reason for the death of the first one, and the third knight for not executing the previous order. 

The Friar's second example is about the wrathful king Cambyses who was a drunkard as well.  Once one of his lords counselled him not to drink that it would make his eyesight and limbs powerless.  The enraged king brought the Lord’s son, took his bow and arrow, shot him to death and asked whether his eyesight and limbs were strong enough or not.  Thus friar illustrates that fury leads to homicide.

Now the Friar begs for gold from Thomas to build the convent but the latter is unwilling since the prayer of the friars of church has failed to cure his sickness.  Much annoyed by the Friar's repeated begging, Thomas decides to make the Friar a laughing stock and says that whatever he gives should be shared by him equally with other friars. The Friar swears.  Now Thomas asks the Friar to search behind his back at the bottom to find the hidden things.  The Friar puts his hand and starts groping around the rich man’s buttocks. What he gets now is nothing but prolonged fart with piercing sound.  The Friar, much infuriated, flees from the place with his men.   On his way, he visits another rich lord of the village and unfolds his grief to him.  Both the Lord and his wife take this matter very seriously and asks the Friar whether he is very clear now how to equally share the fart with his other twelve friars in the convent.  The Lord’s servant Jankin who is cutting the meat hears this riddle and offers a better solution that the sick man should be brought and laid at the centre of a cartwheel with twelve spokes and each friar should lie his nose at the end of the spoke to receive the equal share of the flatus. The Lord, his wife and all except the Friar John appreciate the wisdom of the servant who is rewarded with a new gown as well.  Thus ends the tale of the Summoner ridiculing The helpless friar.

The world is whole only when put together with the positive and the negative elements, the beautiful and the ugly, the wise and the foolish, the serious and the funny. Chaucer who can write the knight’s tale in lofty style for his scholars and royal audience, can also write this comic tale of summoner for his laymen and the common readers. He represents the vices of the society he lived in and in his time the friars were but the objects of ridicule like the one exemplified here. The repeated use of fart as a comic device elsewhere in Canterbury Tales may lead to disgust of his readers who , however, can’t help laughing at 'equal share' here. Story-within-a story, like the dream technique is another device frequently applied by Chaucer.  For instance, Chaucer tells Canterbury Tales in which the summoner narrates the tale of a friar who in turn proceeds to recite the tale of a king from Seneca to the sick Thomas. Adding prologue to even a comic tale like this may take the readers to question the necessity of its employment but indeed, without them, the coherence and sequence of stories and the guidance of the host with essential interruption may not be possible for Chaucer.

The Friar's Tale by Chaucer

This is the eighth story in Canterbury Tales by Chaucer.  It has a prologue as well as the tale by the Friar, one of the pilgrims.

The Prologue to the Friar's Tale
Unlike the Wife of Bath's lengthy prologue, the Friar's prologue is very simple and brief and he first appreciates the Wife of Bath for having told a touching tale about the true authority, though the pilgrims are there just to speak, make fun and play the game. He proposes to tell a tale of the corrupt summoner who is thrashed everyday at street’s end for his vices.  The host interrupts and asks him to have mercy on the summoner but the summoner challenges the Friar to say anything about the summoner that will be repaid by l him with the list of crimes of the Friar later. Now the Friar begins his tale.

The Friar's Tale
The Friar begins his tale introducing the Archdeacon, a man of high degree  In the ecclesiastical court who deals with many cases such as adultery, church robbery, defamation, usury, bawdry and witchcraft.  The summoner works under the archdeacon in all his illegal dealings.  He is a sly, a thief and a man of no conscience.  He is as money minded as Judas and for money he would pretend to lechers more than how a hunting dog would talk to the hurt deer.

Once the summoner is riding to an old widow's house to extort money with false charges.  On his way he finds a yeoman with a bow and arrows. Since both of them have their offices in the ecclesiastical court, they vow to be brothers to their "dying day". While asked upon his name and way of dealings, the yeoman says that he is actually a demon living in Hell and if anyone curses, he will take away the things mentioned.  Though he doesn't have a shape of his own, he can take any shape such as man, ape or angel.  He takes the soul only and not the body but sometimes both.  The summoner perhaps thinks that the yeoman is playing with words for fun and doesn't take the devil’s words seriously.

On their way they happen to see a cartman struggling to release his cart stuck in the mud.  In frustration, he cries, the devil may take his cart, horse, hay and everything.  The summoner points out this situation and asks him to do as he said.  But the devil in the disguise of a yeoman refuses and says that the curse doesn't come seriously from the man's heart.  At one stage, the cartman managed to pull off his cart from the mud and thanked God.  Thus by curse earlier, the cart man had said one thing and really meant another.

Now both the yeoman and the summoner reach the widow’s house.  The latter threatens her to pay twelve pence, or else he would bring her to court the next day and get excommunicated.  But the lady is old, poor and sick and begs for mercy.  The summoner talks of her old debt to him and plans to take of the new frying pan.  Out of grief, the lady cries, the devil may take both the summoner and the frying pan.  The summoner wants to know whether the curse is really from her heart and she confirms it so.  Then the devil takes the summoner and the pan to the hell.  The Friar ends his tale with a warning against temptation:
“Dispose your hearts always to withstand,
The fiend who would grip you in his hand.
He may not tempt you beyond your might,
For Christ will be your champion and night.”

Chaucer's main focus here is to satirize the corruptions of the church during his time.  He ridicules at the workings of religious system in the name of sins and pardons by sending the summoner to the extend of taking away the frying pan. Is it not a sin to sin against the sinners in the name of sin.  This tale also reveals Chaucer's deep insight into Hell and the formation of evil spirits.  “I would ride now into the world’s end following my prey” is what is said by the devil and unfolds the truth that the evil will persist and visit us till the end and our duty is to hold faith in God and resist.