Associated with Russian physiologist Pavlov and Stimulus response theory
Experiments with
dog, bell sound and food
Unconditioned Stimulus (food) andConditioned stimulus (bell) are paired to produce conditioned response
(saliva), that is different from unconditioned response(saliva) before
association -
finding: learning occurs rapidity while the interval between CS
and US is short.
Associated with Skinner,American psychologist, professor at Harvard University
"Walden
Two",his novel presenting his theories
'operant' referring to modification
of behaviour by the reinforcing or inhibiting effect of its own consequences
Both reinforcements increase the behaviour, both punishments decrease the behaviour
Positive
reinforcement (adding a prospective stimulus) : rewarding increases the desired
behavior (rat in Skinner box, while pushing
pedals, gets food,)
Negative Reinforcement (
removal of harmful stimulus, escape) : removal of noxious stimulus increases the
desired behavior ( loud noise inside Skinner box,stopping while lever pressed by rat
Positive
Punishment (adding a harmful stimulus) -punishment decreases the unwanted behaviour in learning (e.g. beating,spanking )
Negative Punishment (removal of a
prospective stimulus) : punishment by removing a prospective stimulus to
decrease the unwanted behaviour –(no increment for poor performance,no watching TV for poor study)
Extinction : no response from learner, since stimulus is no longer present – stop
food to rat, it stops pulling the lever.
3.Neo behaviorism (1930–1955)
associated with Edward C. Tolman (1886–1959), Clark Hull
(1884–1952), and B. F. Skinner (1904–1990)-
more self-consciously trying to
formalize the laws of behavior
Tolman focusing his experimental work largely
on white rats learning their way through mazes
Against isolated stimuli and
responses, Tolman emphasized their integration with the environment by
referring to them as "stimulating agencies" and "behavior
acts."
his 1932 famous Purposive Behavior in Animals and Men
Skinner
Baby box (1945) – his experiment with his own
daughter – Finding: we're capable of behaviors that we don't
entirely control. –Against the belief that humans are ultimately masters of our
destiny rather than products of our circumstances
Hull - build-up
and breakdown of habit interpreted as the key to all behavior - found the fundamental
law of learning or habit-formation—the law of stimulus generalization—and that
this law not only underlay all behavior in animals and humans, but a
principle basic enough to unify all the social sciences.
4.4. Gestalt
Theory:
German term meaning 'form' or 'pattern'
macroscopic view of the psychological behaviors rather than
a microscopic approach understanding and perceiving the whole sum of an
object rather than its components
based on perceiving reality in its simplest
form
the ways humans perceive objects: similarity, proximity,
continuity
Associated with productive thinking, solving problem with insight – reproductive
thinking, solving problem with past experience
Associated with Graf Christian von Ehrenfels
learning takes place
as students were able to comprehend a concept in its entirety, rather than
broken up into parts
the experiences and perceptions of
learners having a significant impact on the way that they learn
Learning happens
best when the instruction is related to their real life experiences. The human
brain has the ability to make a map of the stimuli caused by these life
experiences, known as “isomorphism.”
5.5. Cognitivism:
known as information processing psychology
the way people think impacting their behavior
attention of the learner as the first part of cognitivism
memory,
playing vital role
acquisition of knowledge and growth of mental
structures stressed
Rooted
in Gestalt psychology and the work of Jean Piaget, cognitivism has been
prominent in psychology since the 1960s
The
learner is viewed as an information processor (like a computer)
supporters: Marriner David Merill (1937 – ), Charles
Reigeluth (1946 – ), Robert Mills Gagné
(1916 – 2002), Jerome Bruner
(1915-2016)and Roger Schank (1946 – ),
Knowledge seen as schema or symbolic mental
constructions
Learning defined as change in a learner’s schemata
people
are not “programmed animals" that merely respond to environmental stimuli but rational beings that require active participation in order to learn,
and whose actions are a consequence of thinking
Changes in behavior being observed, but only as an indication of what is occurring in the learner’s
head.
6.Constructivism
learning being an active, contextualized
process of constructing knowledge rather than acquiring it
The learner brings
past experiences and cultural factors to a current situation and each person
has a different interpretation and construction of the knowledge process.
Associated with Vygotsky’s
(1978) theory, one of the foundations of constructivism
Social interaction playing a fundamental role in the process of
cognitive development
Every
function in the child’s cultural development appears twice: first, on the
social level, and later, on the individual level; first, between people
(interpsychological) and then inside the child (intrapsychological) -
Learning from The More Knowledgeable Other (MKO)-anyone
who has a better understanding or a higher ability level than the learner
The
Zone of Proximal Development (ZPD) referring to the distance between a learner’s
ability to perform a task under adult guidance and with peer collaboration
and their ability to solve the problem independently. According to Vygotzky,
learning occurs in this zone.
in short, his three theories mean: what the learner can do, what the learner can do
with help from others, what the learner can’t
do yet but will attempt to do
7.Experiential learning
.Associated with Kolb (1984) -a four stage model known as
the experiential learning cycle - a way by which people can understand
their experiences and, as a result, modify their behavior - (without reflection,
people would continue to repeat their mistakes
Concrete
experience Stage - experiencing or immersing yourself in the task given by the teacher - doing stage.
Observation
and reflection Stage- reviewing what has been done and experienced -Your values,
attitudes and beliefs can influence your thinking at this stage -This is the
stage of thinking about
what you have done.
Abstract
conceptualization Stage-the stage of planning how you will
do it differently.
Active
experimentation Stage - enables you to take the new learning -This is the redoing stage based
upon experience and reflection.
8.Humanism
learningas a personal act to fulfill potential within the learner
insisting to study a person as a whole, particularly
as they grow and develop over their lifetime
Associated with Rogers (1983) who developed the theory of
facilitative learning and Maslow
based on a belief that people have a natural human
eagerness to learn and that learning involves changing your own concept of
yourself
learning to take place if the person delivering it acts as a
facilitator
to discuss new ideas and learn from their mistakes
learning not
threatened by external factors
considered behaviorism to be much too narrow in focus to be dealing with significant issues, such as love, values, self-actualization, choice, spirituality, awe, purpose, and meaning.
9.Pedagogy and andragogy:
Formal teaching , known as pedagogy, where the
teacher directs all the learning.-
informal teaching known as andragogy,
where the learner is the focus, for example, via group activity and discussions
andragogy can include your learners’ experiences and knowledge by involving
them whenever possible, and building upon what they already know and what
interests them
10.Pragmatism
Associated with John Dewey (1859-1952)
believes that
learners learnt more from guided experiences than from authoritarian
instruction
learning recognised life, not just preparation
for life
Using different delivery approaches, combined with
practical activities, will help reach the different learning preferences of the
individuals you are teaching.
11.Sensory theory
Associated with Laird (1985)
learning occurs when the
senses of sight, hearing, touch, smell and taste are stimulated
easy for a
practical session, but not so fora
theoretical subject
learning session to be full of fun and interesting, relating to all the senses,
helping your learners remember the topics better through sensory approach
two other senses suggested for teacher by this theory: a sense of humor and common sense.
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